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Posts in the ‘Front page’ category

7 Aug 2013

by Dave

Writing Documentation using Grunt and Jekyll

Running a startup is a lot of work. All manner of tasks constantly compete for the team’s attention mandating a careful dance to keep on top of everything. We haven’t nailed all the footwork to this dance yet, but we have learned that choosing the right tool for each job can drastically simplify the choreography.

We recently rewrote a large portion of Myna in the march towards version 2 of the platform. Most of the customer-facing software – the dashboard, client libraries, HTTP API, and so on – were completely new and required new documentation. Our existing help pages were in need of an overhaul, so we decided to move them out into their own project using a build system based on Grunt and Jekyll.

The new documentation is still a work-in-progress – you can watch its evolution on the Myna website and its repository on Github (yes, it’s open source – another experiment we’re trying). We’re really happy with the way it’s all working out, so we’ve published the build system as a separate project that you can use to bootstrap your own documentation. Go forth, fork, and profit!

Why Jekyll?

Our old documentation was implemented as a set of templates in the Play 2 web app that runs our marketing site and original customer dashboard. Publishing the app requires a PhD in SBT, Mongo and Redis, and if you’re writing documentation on the train (as we are prone to do) it isn’t uncommon to have your plans abruptly terminated by one of SBT’s frequent unavoidable urges to download the whole internet (unadvisable in the middle of signal-free rural England).

We considered moving to a CMS such as WordPress, but our support team are all developers with their own preferred editors and IDEs. Forcing them to write documentation (painful) in a tiny WYSIWYG editor embedded into a web site seemed like torture. Also, CMSs require internet connections… it kinda goes with the territory.

Grunt and Jekyll, in contrast, run completely offline, and have a number of other advantages too. Plugins like grunt-contrib-watch provide instant previews via Livereload, and Jekyll’s syntax highlighting (provided by Pygments) can highlight any syntax you throw at it (including, to my amazement, HTTP).
Jekyll isn’t completely perfect for the job. We had to work around a few issues. Fortunately, none of them proved insurmountable:

Versioning

We’ve run into versioning problems many times before, some requiring some pretty serious workarounds. In fact, versioning issues are pretty much endemic across all software development platforms. In this toolchain we’re relying on lots of components: Grunt, five Grunt plugins, Ruby, and Jekyll. Fortunately, versioning is pretty much a solved problem these days: NPM and Bower are great package managers for Node, and Bundler normalizes not only the version of Jekyll we’re using, but also the version of Ruby itself.

Static Assets (Say “NO” to Plain CSS)

I may catch some flack for this, but CSS is a silly language riddled with missing features and bizarre design decisions. No way are we going to battle with a new documentation project without tools like Less CSS and Twitter Bootstrap to support us. And if we’re compiling and minifying our CSS, we might do it for Javascript as well. Jekyll doesn’t support support for either process out-of-the-box.

One way of solving these issues would be to use Jekyll plugins – there are many candidates available on Github. However, we prefer to use Grunt for this kind of thing, running Jekyll via grunt-exec and Bundler, and using grunt-contrib-watch and grunt-contrib-connect for preview functionality.

Content Navigation

Jekyll has built-in support for cataloguing and paginating blog posts, but it can’t natively generate navigation for a hierarchical documentation site. Fortunately, this was easy to work around with a couple of custom plugins: one to create a table of contents for the sidebar, and one to generate next and previous buttons at the bottom of each page.

Authenticating Users

The main navigation bar on Myna changes when users log in. Ideally we want like to keep this consistent across the main web site, the blog, and the documentation. Our solution is to built a small Javascript app to monitor the user’s login details and rewrite the navbar on demand. This is a work-in-progress project and it’s not part of the Github repo above.

Conclusion

If you like the idea of writing documentation in Markdown, you can get started in two minutes by cloning our  Github repo  and following the instructions in the README. We’d love to hear from you if you find our system useful, and we welcome pull requests with improvements.

Posted in Code, Front page, Fun, General, Javascript, Myna, Web development | Comments Off on Writing Documentation using Grunt and Jekyll

19 Oct 2012

by Laura

Meanwhile, at Untyped HQ…

… crickets

As you probably know, for the past few weeks, we’ve been concentrating hard on Myna. We’ve been accepted onto the Oxygen Accelerator program at Birmingham Science Park, Aston, so we’re hard at work setting up companies, opening bank accounts, and other such menial tasks.

In the land of Untyped, all we can see is myna birds.

In case you haven’t done so already, pop on over to the Myna blog, where you can keep up to date with the latest happenings (and anecdotes from life on Oxygen), or follow the Twitter account. Also note that Myna is still in free beta, so if you’d like to try it out, go ahead and sign up. All feedback is gratefully received – drop us a line via the Myna contact page.

Thanks, and have a great weekend!

Posted in Front page, Myna | Comments Off on Meanwhile, at Untyped HQ…

6 Jun 2012

by Noel

Myna for WordPress available now!

Cliff Seal of Pardot has released v0.1 of his WordPress plugin for our web content optimiser, Myna!

Cliff’s plugin lets you test and optimise the content of your WordPress posts and pages. Why not try it on your web site?

Posted in Front page, Myna, Web development | Comments Off on Myna for WordPress available now!

10 Oct 2011

by Dave

Reading, Writing, and the REST

I’ve just finished preparing the slides for my talk at Scala Lift-Off London 2011 next week. The title of the talk is A Route to the Three ‘R’s: Reading, Writing, and the REST. Here’s the abstract:

The mappings between URLs and code form an integral part of any web application. Many web frameworks help map from URLs to code, but the reverse mapping is often neglected, leaving developers to construct URLs via haphazard string manipulation. Furthermore, many frameworks do not match URLs in a type-safe manner.

Scala provides all the tools we need to address this problem in a more comprehensive manner. In this talk we will walk through the creation of Bigtop Routes, a bidirectional mapping library that is both type-safe and developer-friendly. We will pay particular attention to the ways in which Scala language features, such as flexible syntax, implicit conversions, and a touch of type-level programming, help to simplify the task at hand.

The slides and code samples are all available from my Github page. Skills Matter have posted a video of the talk on their web site.

Posted in Code, Front page, Functional Programming, Scala, Web development | Comments Off on Reading, Writing, and the REST

30 Aug 2011

by Noel

What is Hacker News Worth?

Twelve thousand hits, some thirty emails, and over a dozen new beta testers. That’s what happened when a blog post of ours spent ten hours on the Hacker News frontpage. It was definitely fun getting all that attention, despite the rush of traffic taking our little server off the web for a while. (Installing WP-Cache brought it back.)

Myna is the system described in the blog post, and we’re accepting beta users right now. If you’re interested in content optimisation on your website, and want better results than A/B testing will deliver, do take a look. Obviously getting this surge of traffic from HN is incredibly valuable to us. However I don’t have any suggestions for repeating the event: when I submitted the blog post to HN some months ago it disappeared without a trace. Certainly being active answering questions on HN helped keep it on the front page, and that position netted us a fairly steady thousand hits an hour.

If you’re one of the people who read our blog post, thanks for the interest! It’s very exciting for us to know that our idea for improving content optimisation resonates with so many people, and we’re looking forward to getting Myna out of beta and seeing where it takes us.

Posted in Business, Front page, Myna | Comments Off on What is Hacker News Worth?

6 Mar 2011

by Dave

Javascript compilation for SBT

Over the weekend I knocked up a little SBT plugin to wrap up the Javascript resources in our Lift projects and deploy them as one big minified file. Read on to find out how it works, then grab yourself a copy and take it for a spin.

The plugin scans your webapps directory and looks for files with the extensions .jsm or .jsmanifest. These files, called Javascript Manifests, describe lists of Javascript sources that should be combined into a single file. For example:

# You can specify remote files using URLs...

http://code.jquery.com/jquery-1.5.1.js

# ...and local files using regular paths
#    (relative to the location of the manifest):

lib/foo.js
bar.js

# Blank lines and bash-style comments are also supported

Manifest compilation happens in two phases: first, the plugin downloads and caches any remote scripts specified using URLs. Second, it feeds all of the sources (remote and local) into Google’sClosure Compiler, which concatenates them and minifies everything (and provides excellent services like static type checking to boot). The output from the compiler is a .js file with the same base name and relative path as the original manifest.

There’s not a lot more to it than that. The plugin hooks into SBT’s standard compile and package phases, so your Javascript gets rebuilt automatically alongside your Scala code. If this sounds useful to you, please feel free to grab a copy and take it for a spin. Full details are available in the README on Github.

I should point out that there are other useful SBT plugins that do a similar job. For example, I plagiarised extensively from Jon Hoffman’sYUI Compressor plugin and Luke Amdor’s Coffee Script plugin when writing my code. These two particular examples don’t do file combination, though, and that was an important feature for our specific use case.

Posted in Code, Front page, Javascript, Scala, Web development | Comments Off on Javascript compilation for SBT

11 Feb 2011

by Noel

Stop A/B Testing and Make Out Like a Bandit

This is the blog post that led to Myna. Sign up now and help us beta test the world’s fastest A/B testing product!

Were I a betting man, I would wager this: the supermarket nearest to you is laid out with fresh fruit and vegetables near the entrance, and dairy and bread towards the back of the shop. I’m quite certain I’d win this bet enough times to make it worthwhile. This layout is, of course, no accident. By placing essentials in the corners, the store forces shoppers to traverse the entire floor to get their weekly shop. This increases the chance of an impulse purchase and hence the store’s revenue.

I don’t know who developed this layout, but at some point someone must have tested it and it obviously worked. The same idea applies online, where it is incredibly easy to change the “layout” of a store. Where the supermarket might shuffle around displays or change the lighting, the online retailer might change the navigational structure or wording of their landing page. I call this process content optimisation.

Any prospective change should be tested to ensure it has a positive effect on revenue (or some other measure, such as clickthroughs). The industry standard method for doing this is A/B testing. However, it is well known in the academic community that A/B testing is significantly suboptimal. In this post I’m going to explain why, and how you can do better.

There are several problems with A/B testing:

  • A/B testing is suboptimal. It simply doesn’t increase revenue as much as better methods.
  • A/B testing is inflexible. You can’t, for example, add a new choice to an already running test.
  • A/B testing has a tedious workflow. To do it correctly, you have to make lots of seemingly arbitrary choices (p-value, experiment size) to run an experiment.

The methods I’m going to describe, which are known as bandit algorithms, solve all these problems. But first, let’s look at the problems of A/B testing in more detail.

Suboptimal Performance

Explaining the suboptimal performance of A/B testing is tricky without getting into a bit of statistics. Instead of doing that, I’m going to describe the essence of the problem in a (hopefully) intuitive way. Let’s start by outlining the basic A/B testing scenario, so there is no confusion. In the simplest situation are two choices, A and B, under test. Normally one of them is already running on the site (let’s call that one A), and the other (B) is what we’re considering replacing A with. We run an experiment and then look for a significant difference, where I mean significance in the statistical sense. If B is significantly better we replace A with B, otherwise we keep A on the site.

The key problem with A/B testing is it doesn’t respect what the significance test is actually saying. When a test shows B is significantly better than A, it is right to throw out A. However, when there is no significant difference the test is not saying that B is no better than A, but rather that the data does not support any conclusion. A might be better than B, B might be better than A, or they might be the same. We just can’t tell with the data that is available*. It might seem we could just run the test until a significant result appears, but that runs into the problem of repeated significance testing errors. Oh dear! Whatever we do, if we stick exclusively with A/B testing we’re going to make mistakes, and probably more than we realise.

A/B testing is also suboptimal in another way — it doesn’t take advantage of information gained during the trial. Every time you display a choice you get information, such as a click, a purchase, or an indifferent user leaving your site. This information is really valuable, and you could make use of it in your test, but A/B testing simply discards it. There are good statistical reasons to not use information gained during a trial within the A/B testing framework, but if we step outside that framework we can.

* Technically, the reason for this is that the probability of a type II error increases as the probability of a type I error decreases. We control the probability of a type I error with the p-value, and this is typically set low. So if we drop option B when the test is not significant we have a high probability of making a type II error.

Inflexible

The A/B testing setup is very rigid. You can’t add new choices to the test, so you can’t, say, test the best news item to display on the front page of a site. You can’t dynamically adjust what you display based on information you have about the user — say, what they purchased last time they visited. You also can’t easily test more than two choices.

Workflow

To setup an A/B experiment you need to choose the significance level and the number of trials. These choices are often arbitrary, but they can have a major impact on results. You then need to monitor the experiment and, when it concludes, implement the results. There are a lot of manual steps in this workflow.

Make out like a Bandit

Algorithms for solving the so-called bandit problem address all the problems with A/B testing. To summarise, they give optimal results (to within constant factors), they are very flexible, and they have a fire-and-forget workflow.

So, what is the bandit problem? You have a set of choices you can make. On the web these could be different images to display, or different wordings for a button, and so on. Each time you make a choice you get a reward. For example, you might get a reward of 1 if a button is clicked, and reward of 0 otherwise. Your goal is to maximise your total reward over time. This clearly fits the content optimisation problem.

The bandit problem has been studied for over 50 years, but only in the last ten years have practical algorithms been developed. We studied one such paper in UU. The particular details of the algorithm we studied are not important (if you are interested, read the paper – it’s very simple); here I want to focus on the general principles of bandit algorithms.

The first point is that the bandit problem explicitly includes the idea that we make use of information as it arrives. This leads to what is called the exploration-exploitation dilemma: do we try many different choices to gain a better estimate of their reward (exploration) or try the choices that have worked well in the past (exploitation)?

The performance of an algorithm is typically measured by its regret, which is the average difference between its actual performance and the best possible performance. It has been shown that the best possible regret increases logarithmically with the number of choices made, and modern bandit algorithms are optimal (see the UU paper, for instance).

Bandit algorithms are very flexible. They can deal with as many choices as necessary. Variants of the basic algorithms can handle addition and removal of choices, selection of the best k choices, and exploitation of information known about the visitor.

Bandits are also simple to use. Many of the algorithms have no parameters to set, and unlike A/B testing there is no need to monitor them — they will continue working indefinitely.

Finally, we know bandits work on the web, as much of the current research on them is coming out of Google, Microsoft, Yahoo!, and other big Internet companies.

So there you have it. Stop wasting time on A/B testing and make out like a bandit!

Join Our Merry Band

Finally, you probably won’t be surprised to hear we are developing a content optimisation system based on bandit algorithms. I am giving a talk on this at the Multipack Show and Tell in Birmingham this Saturday.

We are currently building a prototype, and are looking for people to help us evaluate it. If you want more information, or would like to get involved, get in touch and we’ll let you know when we’re ready to go.

Update: In case you missed it at the top, Myna is our content optimisation system based on bandit algorithms and we’re accepting beta users right now!

Posted in Business, Code, Design, Front page, General, Myna, Web development | Comments Off on Stop A/B Testing and Make Out Like a Bandit

24 Jan 2011

by Dave

Smooth Scrolling for Mobile Safari

I recently wrote a jQuery plugin to do some smooth scrolling on the iPad, and I thought I’d share the code with everyone.

The effect you get is very similar to the iOS home screen. The user touches the screen and drags to scroll. Releasing the screen causes it to spring to the most appropriate page based upon the last dragging position and speed.

Gurus of front end development tell us that pretty much the only way to get smooth transitions on the iPad is to use 3D CSS transforms. After experimenting with jQuery animations and 2D CSS transforms, I pretty much concur: jQuery animations yield one or two frames per second, and 2D CSS transforms aren’t much better. 3D CSS transforms, on the other hand, are hardware accelerated and smooth as silk.

You can get the code from this Gist on Github (contributions and enhancements welcome). Use it with the following HTML:

 <div id="viewport"> <div>First page</div> <div>Second page</div> <div>Third page</div> </div>

and the following Javascript:

 $("#viewport").scrollpane();

There’s a demo of it in action here. A couple of notes:

  • Because this hooks into touch gesture events and CSS3 3D transforms, it’ll pretty much only work on iDevices and possibly other Webkit-based tablets.
  • It works horizontally and vertically, but I’d recommend only using it horizontally in a regular web page because it interferes with Safari’s natural screen bounce. I had the benefit of a working on an offline brochure where the web page never scrolls naturally. In this environment the plugin really shines. If you are interested in doing something similar, take a look at the iPad app Delivery Site, which lets you customise various things like this.
  • There are a couple of options you can tweak to affect things like dead-zones before a drag will trigger a page transition. See the top of the source code for details.
  • When the first 3D transform is added to a page, Mobile Safari seems to transparently install an OpenGL panel to handle the effects. This causes a rendering glitch that’s just faintly visible if you’re paying attention. The plugin works around this by setting an identity transform on the scroll component on page load. Webkit is presumably frugal about 3D-ification for a reason, so you may find your web pages take more memory and CPU resources with this plugin active than without.
  • Really large (read “many-page, full-screen”) scroll panes can be very heavy on the browser. This is presumably due to the overhead of creating a texture buffer to 3D accelerate the transitions. I’ve managed five-page full-screen scrolling transitions without problems, but your mileage may vary.

Posted in Code, Front page, Fun, Javascript, Web development | Comments Off on Smooth Scrolling for Mobile Safari

21 Jan 2011

by Noel

All About Amazon’s Dynamo

The second paper we looked at in UU is Amazon’s 2007 paper onDynamo. Dynamo is an example of a new type of database dubbed NoSQL and Riak is an open-source implementation of the Dynamo architecture. Studying Dynamo is worthwhile for a number of reasons:

  • It combines a lot of recent ideas in distributed systems. These ideas are worth learning in their own right to avoid mistakes likeReddit’s when building scalable systems.
  • Since Riak is basically Dynamo, knowledge of Dynamo is directly applicable.
  • Understanding the design trade-offs in Dynamo provides a way to understand the rest of the NoSQL space.

So, What is NoSQL?

In the old days everyone used relational databases and it was good. Then along came the web, and with the web a tidal wave of data, and things were not good. The tradeoffs made by relational databases (maintaining the famous ACID properties) made them unsuitable for tasks where response time and availability were paramount. This is the case for many web applications. For example, it doesn’t really matter if my Facebook status updates aren’t immediately visible to all my friends, but it does matter if my browser hangs for a minute while the back-end tries to get a write lock on the status table.

NoSQL databases make a different set of tradeoffs, and achieve different performance characteristics as a result. Typically, NoSQL databases focus on scalability, fast response times, and availability, and give up atomicity and consistency. This tradeoff is formalised via the CAP Theorem, which states that a distributed system cannot provide consistency, availability, and partition tolerance all at the same time (although two out of three of these properties are achievable at once). Dynamo provides availability and partition tolerance at the expense of consistency. Other NoSQL databases may make different tradeoffs. SQL databases typically provide consistency and availability at the expense of partition tolerance.

Reading the Paper

The Dynamo paper can be difficult to read. The main issue we had is that the authors don’t always motivate the different components of the system. For example, consistent hashing is one of the earlier concepts introduced in the paper, but it is difficult to see why it is used and how it contributes to increased availability until later on. It is best to approach each section of the article as a self-contained idea, and wait until the end to see how they are combined. It took us two sessions to get through the paper, so don’t be surprised if you find it slow going.

Setting Out the Shop

The paper starts by laying out the properties required of Dynamo. We’ve talked about the tradeoff between consistency, availability, and partition tolerance above. Some of the other properties are:

  • Cost-effectiveness. This is important but often overlooked. You’ll sometimes see supporters of relational databases arguing that if people got some real database hardware they’d never need NoSQL. The problem with real hardware is it’s expensive. If my 20-CPU database server is at full capacity I have to drop another $20’000 just to handle another 5% increase in traffic. I probably can’t get next day delivery on this type of server, either. With a system like Dynamo I can just boot up another $500/yr virtual machine.
  • Dynamo is a key-value store. This means that there are no foreign keys and hence no joins: the application must provide all of this, or more likely use a denormalised data representation. Furthermore, Dynamo sees its data as opaque binary blobs, so search is only possible using primary keys. Other NoSQL databases make different choices: MongoDB and CouchDB are document-oriented stores, meaning that data is stored as a JSON-like tree of keys and values; HBase and Cassandra store data as tuples, like a relational database, but without foreign keys.
  • Low configuration, and fully distributed design. These two go hand-in-hand. A fully distributed design means all nodes are the same, and thus have the same configuration. It also means there is no single point of failure, another desirable feature. Again, different systems take different approaches. For example,MongoDB and most relational databases have a master/slave setup in which one machine has special “master” significance. Obviously in this setup different machines have different configurations.

Big Ideas

Dynamo is the fusion of a lot of ideas that are have developed in the field of distributed systems. Rather than duplicate the paper I want to discuss four points that I found interesting:

  • Consistent hashing
  • Dynamo’s implementation
  • Amazon’s quality metric
  • Feedback control for balancing tasks

Consistent Hashing

If you take one point from Dynamo, let it be the usefulness ofconsistent hashing. The basic idea of consistent hashing is to decouple the value of a key from the machine it is stored on. If you do this you can add and remove machines from your data store without breaking anything. If you don’t, you’re in a world of pain.

Consistent hashing is best explained via an example of doing it wrong. Say you have N machines serving as your data store. Given a key you want to work out which machine stores the data. A simple way to do so (which is what Reddit did) is to calculate key mod N. Now suppose due to increased load you want to add a machine in your data store. Now key mod (N+1) won’t give the same result, so you can’t find your data any more. To fix this you have to flush out the data and reinsert it, which will take a long time. Or you can use consistent hashing from the outset.

An example of consistent hashing. The small circles indicate the tokens, and the colours the segments of the hash ring allocated to each server.In consistent hashing you arrange the space of hash keys into a ring. Each server inserts a token into the ring, and is responsible for keys that lie in the range from it’s token to the nearest preceding token. This is illustrated in the image to the left. The small circles indicate the tokens, and the colours the segments of the hash ring allocated to each server.

Adding a new server only requires coordination with the server that previously occupied that part of the hash space. In the original consistent hashing paper tokens were inserted at random. For Dynamo it was found that a more structured system worked better. I’ll leave the details of this and other issues (in particular, routing and replication) to the paper.

Non-blocking IO

The section on Dynamo’s implementation will be interesting to PL geeks. If you’ve ever rolled your eyes at the manual continuation-passing style inflicted by Javascript then you might at least crack a wry smile when you read about essentially the same technique being used in Dynamo. There is an interesting debate to be had on the virtues of non-blocking IO vs thread-per-connection. At the moment my opinion is non-blocking IO is a necessary evil given kernels written in unsafe languages (and hence expensive context switches). Erlang does a good job of presenting a simple programming model with its light-weight threads, but achieving decent SMP performance can be hard due to the mismatch between application and OS threads. It’s my hope that languages like Rust will give a pragmatic solution to this dilemma.

Amazon’s Quality Metric

Although it isn’t part of the main thrust of the paper, I found it interesting that Amazon measure response time and other variables at the 99.9% percentile. Amazon have a very good reputation, and for other companies looking to achieve the same stature it is good to know the goal to aim for.

Feedback Control for Balancing Tasks

I’ve recently implemented feedback control (in particular, proportional error control) for a database connection pool. (I’ll blog about this in a bit.) It’s interesting that Dynamo uses a similar method to balance tasks within each node (Section 6.5). I think we’re going to see more self-regulating systems in the future. The work atRADLab is a good example of what might make it into production in a few years.

By scheduling tasks itself Dynamo is performing a task typically handled by the operating system. I think in the future this will be more commonplace, with the distinction between operating system and application program becoming increasingly blurred. TheManaged Runtime Initiative is one project that aims to do this.

Posted in Front page, Web development | Comments Off on All About Amazon’s Dynamo

10 Jan 2011

by Noel

The University of Untyped

We’ve recently started a reading group at Untyped. As consultants we need to maintain our expertise, so every Friday we tackle something new for a few hours. Given our love of Universities (we average three degrees per Untypist) and our even greater love of grandiose corporate training (hello, Hamburger University!) we have named this program Untyped University.

Broadly, we’re covering the business of the web and the business of building the web. The online business is, from certain angles, quite simple. The vast majority of businesses can be viewed as a big pipeline, sucking in visitors from the Internet-at-large, presenting some message to the user, and then hoping they click “Buy”. At each stage of the pipeline people drop out. They drop out right at the beginning if the site isn’t ranked high enough on search terms or has poorly targetted ads. They abandon the website if the design is wrong, or the site is slow, or the offer isn’t targeted correctly. Each step of this pipeline has tools and techniques that can be used to retain users, which we’ll be covering. The flipside of this is the pipeline that delivers the site, starting with data stores, going through application servers, and finishing at the browser or other client interface. Here we’ll be looking at the technologies and patterns for building great sites.

So far we’ve run a couple of sessions. The first covered bandit algorithms, and the second Amazon’s Dynamo. We’ll blog about these soon. We’ve started a Mendeley group to store our reading (though not everything we cover in future will be in published form.) Do join in if it takes your fancy!

Posted in Business, Front page, General, Web development | Comments Off on The University of Untyped